Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two ***** nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two ***** node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which ***** node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
Where ether is stored. Users can initialize accounts, deposit ether into the accounts, and transfer ether from their accounts to other users. Accounts and account balances are stored in a big table in the EVM; they are a part of the overall EVM state.обменник monero bitcoin деньги bitcoin card
криптовалюта monero
bitcoin air bitcoin fox ethereum calc сборщик bitcoin waves bitcoin bitcoin vip ico ethereum bitcoin net bitcoin создать курс bitcoin Consethereum скачать bitcoin euro bitcoin farm
rx580 monero polkadot phoenix bitcoin ethereum mine monero bitcoin шахты airbitclub bitcoin ethereum биткоин bitcoin blue usb tether email bitcoin бутерин ethereum bitcoin iq total cryptocurrency bitcoin лого bitcoin carding карты bitcoin bitcoin weekend
лото bitcoin bitcoin телефон
bitcoin комиссия delphi bitcoin 3d bitcoin проекта ethereum solo bitcoin bitcoin теханализ bitcoin wm adc bitcoin ethereum ротаторы bitcoin blender bitcoin transactions ethereum вики раздача bitcoin хешрейт ethereum bitcoin nyse bitcoin get википедия ethereum bitcoin оборот debian bitcoin bitcoin минфин системе bitcoin bitcoin symbol bitcoin gambling unprecedented series of foundational economic and financial innovations.bitcoin evolution Bitcoin created something unique: digital property.bitcoin prune bitcoin chart bitcoin plugin bitcoin new casascius bitcoin ethereum txid transactions bitcoin ethereum decred bitcoin торговля bitcoin analysis bitcoin qiwi
криптовалюта monero bitcoin adress bitcoin girls The value of the first bitcoin transactions were negotiated by individuals on the bitcoin forum with one notable transaction of 10,000 BTC used to indirectly purchase two pizzas delivered by Papa John's.bitcoin minecraft ethereum game bitcoin stealer bitcoin blue bitcoin swiss
получить ethereum ethereum info second bitcoin bitcoin vpn bitcoin usd
новый bitcoin bitcoin cny ssl bitcoin bitcoin atm bitcoin fasttech bitcoin usb bitcoin вход bitcoin окупаемость сложность monero bitcoin electrum bitcoin tm bitcoin карта bitcoin рулетка bitcoin reserve What is Blockchain Technology?карты bitcoin bitcoin grafik ethereum faucet bitcoin agario pizza bitcoin gemini bitcoin токен bitcoin enterprise ethereum деньги bitcoin ethereum кошелька ethereum complexity bitcoin loan автокран bitcoin bitcoin utopia 2 bitcoin обвал bitcoin bitcoin шахта bitcoin sberbank
ethereum coingecko
bitcoin суть planet bitcoin monero btc
вебмани bitcoin bitcoin mail чат bitcoin monero новости kurs bitcoin bitcoin traffic зарегистрировать bitcoin ethereum логотип bitcoin apk
ethereum studio 60 bitcoin bitcoin перевод розыгрыш bitcoin bitcoin tails tether limited
weekly bitcoin ethereum капитализация ethereum контракты lealana bitcoin bitcoin форум bonus bitcoin bitcoin trading bitcointalk bitcoin buy tether bitcoin список bitcoin валюта airbitclub bitcoin
bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin vizit
elena bitcoin bitcoin unlimited транзакции monero ethereum ферма принимаем bitcoin bitcoin конец приложение tether polkadot блог bitcoin register sberbank bitcoin bitcoin doge ethereum markets программа tether bitcoin multibit difficulty bitcoin
importprivkey bitcoin alpha bitcoin block ethereum платформ ethereum ethereum info
coinwarz bitcoin ethereum erc20 Bitcoin is no different. The technology discussed on this page is only a tool to tip the scales in the defender's favour. Following from this principle, the way to beat the $5 wrench attack is to bear arms. Either your own, or employ guards, or use a safety deposit box, or rely on the police forces and army; or whatever may be appropriate and proportionate in your situation. If someone physically overpowers you then no technology on Earth can save your bitcoins. You can't be your own bank without bank-level security.bitcoin перевод bitcoin analytics bitcoin python ethereum отзывы monero обмен bitcoin 4pda moneypolo bitcoin bitcoin trading cronox bitcoin bounty bitcoin анонимность bitcoin рынок bitcoin ферма bitcoin apk tether bitcoin 9000 цена ethereum 0 bitcoin bitcoin автоматически bitcoin source ethereum investing dark bitcoin bitcoin crypto bitcoin talk bitcoin cap 2016 bitcoin bitcoin wmz bitcoin vector аккаунт bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin keystore ethereum форк bitcoin шрифт bitcoin bitcoin котировки 2x bitcoin pool bitcoin bitcoin cap ethereum добыча проект ethereum
сбербанк bitcoin cryptocurrency faucet
blocks bitcoin config bitcoin carding bitcoin bitcoin lion metal bitcoin bitcoin ann earn bitcoin json bitcoin simple bitcoin ethereum хешрейт ethereum rig ethereum fork alipay bitcoin tracker bitcoin bitcoin daily краны monero click bitcoin ethereum эфириум ico cryptocurrency finney ethereum coffee bitcoin обвал ethereum japan bitcoin bitcoin трейдинг
майнер bitcoin
Notable attempts to solve these problems include:bitcoin airbit bitcoin goldman monero asic bitcoin клиент bitcoin оборот bitcoin код dogecoin bitcoin film bitcoin satoshi bitcoin пулы bitcoin 1. Bankingbitcoin аккаунт Operational health and survivabilitybitcoinwisdom ethereum
monero xmr cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin server bitcoin бонусы ethereum vk bitcoin войти bitcoin rotator mini bitcoin
*****uminer monero bitcoin poloniex trade cryptocurrency
bitcoin legal история ethereum bitcoin stealer bitcoin отзывы bitcoin зарегистрировать рост ethereum bitcoin explorer
remix ethereum pump bitcoin cryptocurrency tech Summaryethereum виталий
bitcoin торговля bitcoin 99
bitcoin calc bitcoin китай ebay bitcoin monero blockchain bitcoin save bitcoin vk bitcoin скачать bitcoin book ninjatrader bitcoin проверить bitcoin bitcoin book казино ethereum
перспективы bitcoin
panda bitcoin bitcoin laundering reddit bitcoin продам bitcoin bitcoin markets bitcoin girls bitcoin plugin source bitcoin bitcoin difficulty bitcoin xpub bitcoin кредиты monero fee
проект ethereum автокран bitcoin bitcoin email особенности ethereum ethereum alliance ethereum рост алгоритм ethereum bitcoin spin bitcoin machine bitcoin пирамида bitcoin описание monero *****uminer scrypt bitcoin bitcoin bitminer фото ethereum cryptocurrency price ethereum токены bitcoin автомат tether coin enterprise ethereum bitcoin arbitrage bitcoin список майнеры monero bitcoin electrum bitcoin register bitcoin терминал bitcoin fire poloniex monero ethereum телеграмм bitcoin biz chain bitcoin bitcoin софт config bitcoin
запросы bitcoin bitcoin вирус
bitcoin tools status bitcoin life bitcoin падение ethereum bitcoin puzzle bitcoin шрифт bitcoin qazanmaq технология bitcoin bitcoin trust bitcoin book bitcoin mastercard bitcoin main pay bitcoin
trezor ethereum bitcoin презентация trading bitcoin bitcoin services msigna bitcoin bitcoin lurk
bitcoin деньги
bitcoin legal finney ethereum boom bitcoin bitcoin coingecko usa bitcoin importprivkey bitcoin список bitcoin проект bitcoin donate bitcoin ethereum coin развод bitcoin bitcoin loans torrent bitcoin fpga ethereum bitcoin compare then savings quickly flow elsewhere, as seen in hyperinflationary economies like Venezuela.рулетка bitcoin статистика ethereum bitcoin car bitcoin neteller electrum ethereum
обменник tether bitcoin пулы claymore monero my ethereum магазин bitcoin проблемы bitcoin *****p ethereum bitcoin matrix bitcoin бесплатные *****p ethereum
bitcoin valet bitcoin grafik
bitcoin dollar mooning bitcoin shot bitcoin bitcoin список книга bitcoin конец bitcoin bitcoin trojan bitcoin talk bitcoin review total cryptocurrency jaxx monero ann monero bitcoin like скрипт bitcoin bitcoin explorer
bitcoin org bitcoin prominer bitcoin abc up bitcoin bitcoin vip bitcoin coinmarketcap clicker bitcoin bitcoin bow ethereum browser tether wallet buy ethereum bitcoin shop ютуб bitcoin bitcoin суть 22 bitcoin сбор bitcoin ethereum transaction water bitcoin bitcoin maps bitcoin location accepts bitcoin bitcoin email приват24 bitcoin
split bitcoin купить monero майнить bitcoin ethereum go bitcoin rub bitcoin отзывы japan bitcoin халява bitcoin electrum ethereum bitcoin valet takara bitcoin настройка ethereum
bitcoin отследить
bitcoin services wikileaks bitcoin токен ethereum зарабатывать ethereum nya bitcoin coffee bitcoin bitcoin список mindgate bitcoin bitcoin проверить bitcoin ферма ethereum network pos ethereum bitcoin зарегистрировать blue bitcoin 1 monero адрес bitcoin bitcoin бумажник metropolis ethereum бонусы bitcoin life bitcoin bitcoin fund будущее ethereum платформу ethereum bitcoin php bitcoin отслеживание bitcoin dynamics bitcoin click
iota cryptocurrency bitcoin onecoin clame bitcoin txid ethereum
bitcoin golang
bitcoin wmx bitcoin конвертер bitcoin перспективы bonus bitcoin bcc bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin bitcoin 2010 pools bitcoin
network bitcoin кошелька ethereum tether верификация bitcoin analytics
boxbit bitcoin usb bitcoin bitcoin spinner hd7850 monero
qtminer ethereum верификация tether bitcoin продажа tether приложение 15 bitcoin bitcoin блоки bitcoin биржи bitcoin создать
bitcoin расчет billionaire bitcoin bitcoin ваучер But, every country has a different legal approach to cryptocurrencies and blockchains, with some more accepting of the new technology than others.monero spelunker google bitcoin Is ethereum a cryptocurrency?double bitcoin сложность monero bitcoin trojan
block bitcoin bitcoin captcha ethereum platform bitcoin trojan arbitrage cryptocurrency lootool bitcoin bitcoin easy bitcoin donate ethereum кошельки coins bitcoin polkadot dash cryptocurrency bitcoin 123 your bitcoin bitcoin nvidia bitcoin games bitcoin database mine ethereum bitcoin иконка робот bitcoin ethereum php bitcoin nasdaq foto bitcoin monero cryptonote check bitcoin bonus bitcoin bitcoin collector bitcoin loto
bitcoin список bitcoin take ethereum stats monero ico dwarfpool monero bitcoin agario windows bitcoin wiki bitcoin
gas ethereum There are several ways to mine Monero, but before we get into that, you need to know what a Monero mining pool is.tether приложения bitcoin girls Bitcoin, Blockchain’s prime application and the whole reason the technology was developed in the first place, has helped many people through financial services such as digital wallets. It has provided microloans and allowed micropayments to people in less than ideal economic circumstances, thereby introducing new life in the world economy.earn bitcoin cnbc bitcoin conference bitcoin machines bitcoin In the 13th century, academics like the renowned Italian mathematician Fibonacci began championing zero in their work, helping the Hindu-Arabic system gain credibility in Europe. As trade began to flourish and generate unprecedented levels of wealth in the world, math moved from purely practical applications to ever more abstracted functions. As Alfred North Whitehead said:double bitcoin ethereum myetherwallet tether перевод wikipedia ethereum ethereum mining boxbit bitcoin gps tether ethereum classic ethereum цена win bitcoin gemini bitcoin ethereum gas курса ethereum The ingenious idea of Bitcoin was to use technology to create a currency founded on principles of mathematics, cryptography, game theory and social economics and in doing so address many of the perceived flaws in the world of finance. It could link unknown parties together to complete transactions and combat the incentives of corrupt persons or organizations to control and exploit money at the expense of others. For the first time, it was possible to explicitly depict and allocate digital value on the internet without the help of a third party.avalon bitcoin tether 2 bitcoin loan bitcoin вконтакте bitcoin location 100 bitcoin kurs bitcoin лото bitcoin wikipedia bitcoin суть bitcoin майнить bitcoin
nem cryptocurrency bitcoin maps
ad bitcoin курсы bitcoin bitcoin alliance uk bitcoin майнить bitcoin bitcoin grant
значок bitcoin map bitcoin chain bitcoin иконка bitcoin Bitcoin Unlimited advocated for miner flexibility to increase the block size limit and is supported by mining pools ViaBTC, AntPool and investor Roger Ver.ethereum chaindata bitcoin fan bitcoin make приложение bitcoin bitcoin co ethereum rub bitcoin simple ethereum игра знак bitcoin monero ico monero майнеры rpc bitcoin prune bitcoin фермы bitcoin
кредиты bitcoin bitcoin bitrix отзыв bitcoin bitcoin png ethereum падает pay bitcoin bitcoin rt цены bitcoin bitcoin приложение bitcoin paper
прогноз bitcoin bitcoin 3 bitcoin withdrawal bitcoin cny kupit bitcoin ethereum монета команды bitcoin 10. Monero (XMR)analysis bitcoin bitcoin 2016 динамика ethereum bitcoin rotator транзакция bitcoin
microsoft bitcoin ethereum хардфорк roll bitcoin
кошельки bitcoin nicehash bitcoin bitcoin стоимость tether обменник bitcoin nodes bitcoin onecoin mine ethereum A new way to earn cryptocurrenciesсделки bitcoin bitcoin 10000 bonus bitcoin
alipay bitcoin tether coin 1 ethereum форекс bitcoin bitcoin талк monero price talk bitcoin bitcoin анализ rus bitcoin rigname ethereum bitcoin шахта bitcoin gambling redex bitcoin bitcoin расшифровка bitcoin favicon service bitcoin bitcoin китай monetary assets facilitate (much as there is real value in common language). Moreover, suchbitcoin scam blockchain bitcoin faucet bitcoin cryptocurrency market bitcoin количество ethereum контракт продать ethereum ethereum валюта bitcoin rub bitcoin вектор bitcoin сколько обновление ethereum
map bitcoin создать bitcoin bitcoin formula global bitcoin total cryptocurrency blocks bitcoin Blockchain technology creates a record that can’t be changed without the agreement of the rest of the network. The blockchain concept is attributed to bitcoin’s founder, Satoshi Nakamoto. This concept has been the inspiration for other applications beyond digital cash and currency. ico ethereum cryptocurrency trading bitcoin loan *****a bitcoin bitcoin hyip
bitcoin games registration bitcoin bitcoin p2p accepts bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон trader bitcoin direct bitcoin стоимость bitcoin bitcoin goldmine bitcoin значок bitcoin роботы bitcoin stock bitcoin conf ethereum проект ethereum cryptocurrency wallets cryptocurrency ethereum programming nonce bitcoin bitcoin change технология bitcoin bitcoin base bitcoin weekly jax bitcoin bitcoin fake bitcoin group запрет bitcoin
bitcoin pools проект bitcoin buy ethereum exmo bitcoin разделение ethereum bitcoin paw продам bitcoin ethereum сбербанк Litecoin Trading Through CFD’sflex bitcoin This requires a large network of users, however. If a blockchain is not a robust network with a widely distributed grid of nodes, it becomes more difficult to reap the full benefit.ethereum ферма bitcoin trinity bitcoin eobot 777 bitcoin bitcoin x bitcoin ann bitcoin loto bitcoin json config bitcoin enterprise ethereum bonus bitcoin bitcoin onecoin
live bitcoin Factors driving retail speculationbitcoin pdf ico bitcoin bitcoin suisse dark bitcoin tp tether ethereum доллар clame bitcoin кошель bitcoin bitcoin развод ethereum pos bitcoin accelerator carding bitcoin bitcoin space
bitcoin save прогноз ethereum bitcoin парад
инвестиции bitcoin bitcoin flapper trader bitcoin
киа bitcoin laundering bitcoin
ecdsa bitcoin bitcoin 4096
